Stone is a  natural material of construction. It is obtained by disintegration rocks. The stone which is used for construction of engineering structure, is called building stone. Building stone should possess enough strength and durability. It is being used as construction material from very early times.

In this blog, we shall deal with its classifications, properties, uses, etc.

USES OF STONE

• In building construction work, it is used in masonry work, construction of walls, foundations, lintels, damp proof courses, coping, cornices, etc.
• Facial work - It is used as cladding or facing of the building to meet appearance and ornamental requirements.
• Heavy engineering works - It is used in construction of bridges, piers and abutments, gravity dams, retaining walls, etc.
• Stone is used as roofing and flooring material of a building.
• Stone is used as road metal.
• Stone is used as ballast in permanent way of railway tracks.
• Stones are used in manufacture of cement. 
• It is used in making water baths, urinals, electrical switchboards and other products.
• It is used in water treatment process.
• It is used as an aggregate (coarse) in concrete.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

As the stones are obtained by breaking natural rocks, the type and nature of rocks determine the quality and property of building stone.

Geological Classification

These are of three types :-

(i) Igneous Rocks : These are formed by cooling of molten lava outside or inside the surface of the earth during volcanic eruptions. The molten rock is called magma which on solidification becomes igneous rock.
Example - Granite (intrusive igneous rock), Basalt (extrusive igneous rock), Trap etc.

(ii) Sedimentary Rocks: The rocks formed by gradual deposition (consolidation of particles of the preexisting rocks under the effect of weathering agencies such as running water, wind, glacier etc. are called sedimentary rocks.
Examples - Sandstone, limestone, conglomerate.

(iii) Metamorphic Rocks: These rocks are formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks under the influence of heat and pressure.
Examples - Marble, slate, gneiss etc.

Physical Classification

These are of two types :-

(i) Stratified Rocks: Theses rocks can be split into thin sheets.
Examples - Sandstone, Limestone, Slate etc.

(ii) Unstratified Rocks: These rocks can't be split into thin sheets. It does not have Layered structure.
Examples - Marble, Granite, Trap etc.

Chemical Classification

There are three types in this category :-

(i) Calcareous Rocks: These rocks have calcium carbonate as their chief constituent.
Examples - Marble, Limestone etc.

(ii) Argillaceous Rocks: These rocks have clay or alumina as their chief constituent.
Examples - Slate, Laterite etc.

(iii) Siliceous Rocks: These rocks have silica as their chief constituent.
Examples - Sandstone, Granite, Trap etc.

QUALITIES/CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD BUILDING STONE

A good building stone must possess the following characteristics :

Appearance: It should have a uniform and pleasant colour without any cracks and patches.

Hardness/ Toughness: A good building stone should be able to resist abrasive forces (wear and tear) and vibrations of moving loads.

Strength : It should be able to withstand compressive stresses. In general, its crushing strength should not be less than 1000 kg/cm2.

Durability: A good building stone must be durable enough to resist effects of atmospheric/weathering agencies. Examples: rain, wind, temperature etc.

Texture : A good building stone should have compact and crystalline structure.

Porosity/Absorption : A good building stone should not be porous and not absorb more than 5% of water.

Specific Gravity/ Heaviness : The stone to be used in heavy engineering works, docks, and dam must have high specific gravity. In general, it varies from 2.4 - 2.8.

Workability : It should be easy to dress into definite shape for carving and structural work.

Resistance to fire/electricity : It should be able to resist high temperature and offer good resistance to electricity.

Cost : It should have low quarrying cost, dressing cost and transportation cost.

PROPERTIES & USES OF COMMON BUILDING STONES

Granite

This is a common variety of igneous rock formed by cooling of magma below the earth surface. Its properties and uses are as follows:

Properties :-

• Specific gravity - 2.6 to 2.7 
• Unit weight – 2640 kg/m³ 
• Compressive strength - 770 - 1300 kg/cm² 
• Fine grained and can be polished.
• Available in variety of colours and shades - Grey, pink and black.
• Hard, very strong, durable, less workable, less porous, not fire proof and costly to dress.

Uses :-
Suitable for heavy engineering works like bridges, dams, harbours, piers, railway ballast, aggregate in concrete, road metal, column of the building, decorative and monumental works.

Basalt and Trap

These stones are the common varieties of igneous rocks (extrusive type) which are formed by cooling of 'magma' on the earth's surface.

Properties :-

• Specific Gravity - Basalt - 2.80, Trap -2.95
• Unit weight - 2900 kg/m³
• Compressive strength/crushing strength  -  1530 to 1890 kg/cm² for basalt and 3300 to 3800 kg/cm² for trap.
• Dark in colour & shade like black, blue & greenish grey.
• Very strong, hard & tough, less workable, durable, less porous.

Uses :-
Used for floor slabs, foundations, road paving, railway ballast, aggregate in concrete, road metal etc.

Sandstone

It is a common variety of sedimentary rocks, stratified and siliceous in nature.

Properties :-

• Specific gravity  - 2.3 - 2.95
• Unit weight - 2170 - 2350 kg/m³
• Crushing strength - 400 - 650 kg/cm²
• White, grey, brown, red in colour.
• Not very hard, more porous, easy to work and fire resistant (upto 800°C).

Uses :-
Suitable for stone masonry, construction work of architectural importance heavy engineering works, monumental buildings, dams, docks ete.

Limestone

It is a common variety of sedimentary rocks of chemical origin. It is chiefly composed of calcium carbonate with no traces of impurities.

Properties :-

• Specific gravity - 2.5 
• Unit weight - 1720 - 2500 kg/m³
• Crushing strength/Compressive strength - 550 kg/cm
• Available in white, gray, brown and black color.
• Compact variety is hard strong and durable.
• Easy to work with fire resistance up to 900°C with water absorption (up to 4%).

Uses :-

• Used for manufacture of cement and lime, masonry (interior) walls, and paving streets.
• Used in large quantities in blast furnaces bleaching, tanning etc.
• Not fit for use in areas exposed to acidic fumes and smoke.

Marble

It is a most common variety of metamorphic rock. It is a stratified and calcareous. It is chiefly composed of calcium carbonate.

Properties :-

• Specific gravity - 2.65 to 2.72 
• Unit weight - 2700 kg/m³
• Crushing strength - 700 kg/cm²
• Color - White, gray, black, pink, brown, yellow and combination of these.
• Less durable, easily workable (carvable).
• Can take fine polish because of being compact and crystalline in structure.
• Its water absorption is 1-3%.

Uses :-

• Mainly used for ornamental works and superior/specialized building works.
• Can be used in columns, flooring, staircase steps etc.
• Also used for electrical switchboards, wall lining and other decorative purposes.
• Can be used for making floors and facing works, columns or ornamental works.

Read more ...

A LASER is a device which produces monochromatic i.e (single wavelength), unidirectional powerful light beam. It depends on the phenomenon of "stimulated emission" which was first predicted by Einstein in 1916. 

Einstein considered the equilibrium between matter and electromagnetic radiation in a black body chamber at a constant temperature in which the exchange of energy takes place due to absorption and spontaneous emission of radiation by the atoms.

Einstein observed that the usual absorption and emission processes alone are not sufficient to explain the equilibrium. He then predicted that there must be a third process also now known as stimulated emission. Maiman in 1960 built a first LASER.

LASER plays a key role in the field of Medical Science, factories and various engineering fields. LASER is used to create three dimensional photograph known as holograms.

What is LASER?

The term LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
It is a device which is used to produce intense, monochromatic, coherent and unidirectional beam.

Principle of LASER

Principle of Laser is based on quantum theory. In this, there are three possible ways in which atom can interact with a photon. The principle of Laser is based on these three phenomenon.

(a) Absorption

(b) Spontaneous Emission

(c) Stimulated Emission

(a) Absorption : An atom has a number of possible quantised energy states characterised by integral numbers. If it is initially in a lower state 1, it can rise to a higher state 2 by absorbing a quantum of radiation (Photon) of energy given by;

hv = E₂ - E₁

Where, E₁ and E₂ are the energies of the atom in the states 1 and 2 respectively. This is absorption of radiation.

When an atom residing in the lower energy state absorbs a photon, it is raised to higher excited state, provided that the energy of the photon equals the difference of the energy levels. This process is known as absorption.

(b) Spontaneous Emission : The atom lying in the upper energy level 2 (E₂) tries to come to the lower level 1 (E₁) by itself after remaining there for 10^-8 seconds, to have stability. The energy is emitted in the form of a photon, which has energy given by;

hv = E₂ - E₁

This process is known as Spontaneous Emission. The photons emitted are not in the same phase, and the process is random in nature.

(c) Stimulated Emission : When the atom lies in the upper energy level, the incident photon may induce transition from E₂ to E₁ and the atom comes to the lower level. In this process, a photon is emitted. This is known as stimulated emission of light. Both the incident photon and the emitted photon have the same energy and in the same phase. This process is controllable.

In the stimulated emission process, an incident photon forces the excited atom to emit another photon of the same frequency in the same direction and the same phase. The two photons go on together as coherent radiation.

The stimulated emission process may be represented by equation.

A* + hv = A + 2hv

Types of LASERS 

Following are the important types of lasers, depending upon lasing medium :-

(a) Solid State Lasers

(b) Gas Lasers

(c) Semiconductor Lasers

(a) Solid State Lasers : The laser in which the lasing medium uses is Solid in nature is known as Solid State Lasers.

For example - Ruby Laser, YAG Laser.

(b) Gas Lasers : The laser in which the lasing medium uses is Gaseous in nature is known as Gas Lasers. 

For example - He-Ne Laser, N₂-CO₂ Laser.

(c) Semiconductor Lasers : The lasing material used in these Lasers is Semiconductor. A semiconductor diode forms the active medium or laser medium.

For example - Gallium Arsenide Laser.

Properties of a LASER Beam

The laser beam has certain characteristics properties which are not present in beams derived from other light sources :

(i) The Laser beam is completely spatially coherent, with the waves all exactly in phase with one another. An interference pattern can be obtained not merely by placing two slits in a Laser Beam but also by using beams from seperate lasers.

(ii) The Laser light is monochromatic.

(iii) The Laser rays are almost perfectly parallel. Hence a Laser Beam is very narrow and can travel to long distances without spreading. It can be brought to an extremely sharp focus.

(iv) The Laser Beam is extremely intense. It can vaporize even the hardest metal. Because of its high energy density and directional property a Laser Beam can produce temperatures of the order of 10°C at a focussed point.

Read more ...

What is Internet? Definition of Internet.

Internet is sometimes called the Net. Internet is a worldwide system of computer network. It is a network of networks. Internet may be a public and independent facility accessible to hundred of many people worldwide, for several Internet users electronic message (e-mail) has practically replaced the postal services. E-mail is the most widely used applications on net. Moreover, using Internet you can carry online conversations with other computer users.

Internet has revolutionized communications, to the extent that it is now our preferred medium of everybody communication. In almost everything we do, we use the web . Ordering a pizza, buying a television, sharing a flash with a lover , sending an image over instant messaging.

Before the Internet, if you wanted to keep up with the news, you had to walk down to the news stand when it opened in the morning and buy a local edition reporting what had happened the previous day.

Definition : An interconnection of large and small networks around the world is Internet.

What is Internet?

The Internet in simple terms is a network of the interlinked computers worldwide, that is accessible to all. These interconnected computers work by transmitting data through the IP or the Internet Protocol. It provides a common language for the computers attached to the physical network. In this way all the computer conform to a standard set of rules, also called as protocols.

Internet is such a big network of several different interlinked networks concerning the business, government, academic and even smaller domestic networks, therefore Internet is understood because the network of all the other networks.

These networks enable the web to be used for various Important functions which include the several means of communications just like the file transfer, the web chat and even the sharing of the documents and internet sites on the WWW, or the planet Wide Web.

It is always wrongly said that the Internet and the World Wide Web are both the same terms, or are synonymous. But there is a very significant difference between the two. The Internet and World Wide Web are both the networks; the Internet is the network of the several different computers which are connected through copper wires, the fibre optics and even wireless connections.

However, the planet Wide Web consists of the interlinked collection of the knowledge and documents which are taken because the resources by the overall public. These are then linked by the website URLs and the hyperlinks. Therefore, World Wide Web is one of the services offered by the whole and huge network of the Internet.

Read more ...

The word 'Precis'  is the French form of English word 'precise'. To quote the 'Oxford English Dictionary', it means 'a concise or abridged form of a longer passage of literature or document'.

Precis means a short summary of a letter, document, speech, etc. In a precis the main points of the original passage are given in one third length of the original passage. Brevity, lucidity and a sense of proportion are the chief qualities of a precis.

A Precis is different from explanation, expansion, central idea, theme or gist, etc. Explanation of a passage is lengthier than it. Expansion means expanding a given quotation, important saying or topic in a paragraph of given length. Central idea, theme or gist here are just the sum and substance. Their length is shorter than that of a precis.

Importance : Precis Writing is very important for students, lawyers, journalists and biographers, etc. The students make use of precis while taking notes of a lecture or book. The lawyers prepare their cases in brief. The journalists make use of precis while reporting long speeches and events. The biographers use the art of precis while meeting persons whose biographies they have to write. Precis writing requires thorough understanding of the given passage. It is a good mental exercise. Precis saves time, energy and space. We make use of precis in our day to day life while giving the 'resume' of a film which we have seen or a novel that we have read.

Main Points : In every piece of writing, there are some important, less important and unimportant points. In a precis the important or main points are included and unimportant or irrelevant points are omitted. These main points must be properly linked together so that the precis reads like original passage. Proper use of conjunctions should be made to join the main points. The sequences of these points is usually the same as given in the original passage but this sequence can be altered if some useful purpose can be served. The weak student may face difficulty in finding out the main points. He may consider those things essential for the precis which is important for the subject matter and without which the passage is incomplete.

Heading : Heading or title should always be given to a precis even if it has not been asked for by the paper seller. The heading is based on the central point of the given passage. It is usually found either in the beginning or at the end but sometimes in the middle of a passage. In the beginning, the author starts discussion about the main theme and at the end he sums up his main argument. Heading should be as brief as possible. Therefore, it is usually without a verb and is not a sentence. The number of words in the heading should not normally exceed seven. The first letter of important words should be capital. Articles and preposition begin with small letters.

Style : A precis should be written in a clear, simple, concise and straight forward style. Every sentence should not lead to the next. One should use one's own words. Only easy words of the original passage can be incorporated in the precis. Substitute single words for the sentences and clauses, and avoid loose expression. Write your precise in the indirect speech even if the passage is in direct speech. The tense of the original pass need not be changed. There is no room for examples, repetition of thought, explanation, metaphors and smilies. Variety is essential for good prose. The precis should be a well known paragraph or paragraphs, if it is very essential to write more than one paragraph.

Method : The method of writing a precis is very important. First of all, make a silent but rapid reading of the given passage and understand the trend of the thought or main theme of it. This will help you in selecting a suitable title or heading for your precis. If you are slow at time of first reading, you are likely to be lost in minor details. Then make silent and slow reading to the passage till you understand it thoroughly. There is a prescribed limit for the reading to be made. It depends up the nature of a passage and the power of understanding of student. An easy passage will require a fewer number of readings whereas difficult one will need more readings. An intelligent reader will understand a passage earlier than a less intelligent. Generally, three readings are given. But if the passage is so difficult, it may be read four or five times. The more one reads, the more one follows.

Precis Writing is an art which can be mastered only through practice. No one can learn this art fully in one day. It requires regular labour of months together.

Read more ...

Writing a newspaper article is quite different from writing an essay or a speech or a short story. The information of a newspaper article has to be presented in a specific way.

Within the span of a limited space you have to express all relevant information to your audience in a concise manner. There has to be no extraneous information in the article.

Preferably, the first line would give the most important information. The article has to be clear, accurate and objective. Given below are some of the effective ways to write a newspaper article.

EFFECTIVE WAYS OF WRITING A NEWSPAPER ARTICLE

1. Select the Topic

    Before writing the article, you should do a lot of research on the selection of the topic which you are going to write on. After deciding on the topic you begin to start by asking yourself six questions : WHO, WHEN, WHAT, WHERE, WHY, HOW. 

Write the answers after having collected all relevant information on the selected topic. Then read the information and try to weed out unimportant information from that of important ones.

When you are writing an article for newspaper, you should have the responsibility to your readers to not to present fabricated and imaginary stories but real facts and genuine information. 

Cross check numbers and other noted data from different sources in order to present accurate information. Organize the essential points.

2. Authenticate your Data

     You can make your data appear genuine by supporting your story with some firsthand data in the form of interviews, phone calls, emails and social media. People usually are attracted to listen to famous personalities and experts. If you have quoted them in your article, you may get a huge readership.

When you take interview in person or over the phone keep a few things in mind. First of all, keep an open mind and introduce yourself as reporter. Take an appointment. Ask questions and while you are listening to the answer do not interept in between.

Sometimes you may not get the intended answers. Be patient. Do not try to judge. Record and write down essential information from the interview. Use the interview to verify the facts you have already collected. Make sure that you are using the original words spoken by the interviewee.

3. Know your Audience

    While you are writing a newspaper article, you should know the people who you are writing for. You ought to know the educational, social and religious background of your audience.

Ask yourself the "6Ws" (Who, What, When, Why, How, Where) again in relation to the background of the audience. Answer to these questions will make your vision clear to write the article.

You get to know who are you writing for, what do the audience expect from your article, when is the proper time to publish the article, how to write and so on. Finally you are in a position to know how you can write the article from your angle - a unique view.

4. Create a Headline and Start with a Lead

    While beginning to write the article, you should try to give the most important information as soon as possible. The most important sentence is the lead sentence which is placed at the top of the article. It is the outline of the entire article. It answers almost all the questions of the "6Ws".

This lead sentence should be a strong one so that it grabs the attention of the reader. Remember, readers have a tendency to skim through the article. If they do not find the first sentence interesting, they would not go through the entire article. So, start with the good sentence while writing the newspaper article.

With half of your job done with the selection lead sentence, fill out the article with relevant details, opinions of people interviewed and necessary facts, and give your own opinion. Write the subsequent paragraphs in order of importance.

Write the conclusion of article by congratulating the readers for their patience to read through the end of the article. Make sure that the article is complete in all respects. The last line is a restatement of the first statement with some future development to the topic.

5. Take Care of the Language and Tone

     The language and tone of your article is very important. Keep your language readable. Write with a sentence structure and word selection that can be understood by the people from diverse walks of life - from the people with low as well as high educational background.

Try to use active instead of passive language. Do not confuse the reader with the unnecessary and uncommon vocabulary. The tone of your article should be objective.

You should not have any bias or prejudice while writing the article. For example, if you are writing about two politicians, treat them in equal terms even if you do not like one of them. Do not exaggerate events as your job is to report them as they actually happened.

Read more ...

IMPORTANCE OF READING NEWSPAPERS

Reading newspapers daily is taken into account to be a really good and useful habit and has great educational value. Newspapers are the primary things which greet you each morning. They keep us informed on what is happening around us. They contain information about Politics, Economy, Sports, Entertainment, Business, Industry, Trade and Commerce.

They not only enhance our public knowledge but also improve our vocabulary and language skills. They have become so on the brink of our lives that without them we feel incomplete within. There is numerous changes happening around that so as to stay ourselves updated, we would like to read newspapers daily. Thus, newspapers try not only to tell but to interest, to stimulate, and to excite.

BENEFITS OF READING NEWSPAPERS

Modern day newspapers are the current history of world and, in fact, the mini-encyclopedia of the world. Listed below are some of the benefits of reading newspapers daily.

1. Store House of Information

Newspapers provide information and knowledge about a country's political, social and economic situation. It also provides news from the world of sports, entertainment, trade and commerce.

Going through the newspaper widens our outlook and enriches our knowledge. It enables you to take an active part in discussion related to world's current events among your friends and colleagues.

Reading newspapers would help you to have a clear understanding of what is happening in your country and the whole world. Getting yourself updated with the latest news builds up your personality.

2. Enhances our Vocabulary and Language Skills

Reading newspapers increases the word store in our mind. The more we read, the more number of words get into our mind. We may not be able to remember all the words we read but at least some of them get into our memory with continuous reading. Many new words and phrases are repeated in the newspapers every day.

In some newspapers, there are word games and word puzzles with cryptic clues too. An interested learner can improve his vocabulary by attempting these word games and puzzles. He gets to see the use is these words in different sentences in a particular language. The reader of newspaper gets the knowledge of grammar as a result of which he could improve his language skills.

3. Reading Newspapers for Growth and Enlightenment

Newspapers are of a great educational value. The editorial and the articles in the editorial page of the newspaper are descriptive, analytical and give an in-depth knowledge in certain importance.

These articles enlighten students, engineers, doctors, scientists, professors and other professionals to grow into better human beings in their future. 

They gain deep knowledge from these highly educational articles. They sharpen the thinking skills of the readers. This particular section of the newspaper gives us the education of the heart as well as the mind.

4. Spread of Patriotism

Newspapers spread patriotism among the citizens of a country. The inspiring account of struggle for the freedom of a country is published in the newspaper at the time independence day celebrations.

The Indian struggle for freedom is a great example how reading of newspaper educated and ignited the masses to fight for the freedom of our country. It taught the masses to fight for their civil, political and economic rights. 

The vivid accounts of freedom fighters printed in newspaper set an example of selflessness and sacrifice for the people of a country. The people get inspired and try to emulate them.

5. Newspapers as Grievance Redressal Platform

Respecting the Constitutional Fundamental Rights, every citizen voice out their grievances through the columns of the newspapers. The government acknowledges the complaints of the people and takes corrective measures. 

In case of unforeseen disasters like flood, famine, and earthquake etc., the person come out with their problems through newspapers to bring to the attention of the general public and the government. 

It is only through the columns of newspapers that people take the role of reformers against social evils like dowry, child marriage, corruption, etc.

6. Uniqueness and Affordability

There are multiple sources of news like magazines and books in print media, radio and television channels and Internet connections in electronic media, and tablets and smartphones in the wireless communication. But the importance of newspaper remains unaffected and hence incomparable.

Newspapers are available at a very low cost and can be affordable by the poor people. We can read the newspaper at our own convieneint time and at leisure. We can read it as many times as we like.

Also Read-
How to write newspaper article in effective ways.

Read more ...

Road Roller

The most essential machinery which is required in road marking is a road roller. It is used for making any surface, subgrade base or the wearing coat. A road roller may be driven by men, animals or by power.

Types of Road Roller

The types of road rollers which are being used these days are: 

(a) Smooth Wheeled Roller

(b) Pneumatic Tyred Roller

(c) Sheep Foot Roller

Smooth Wheeled Roller

This type of roller has several kinds as given below :-

(i) The Hand Roller : It is a light Roller made of cast iron, stone or concrete. It is about 1 meter in diameter and 1.67 meters long. It is drawn on the ground by hand or by animal power. It is exerts a pressure of about 6.5 kgf/cm^2 on the ground. It has weight of about 2 tonnes. It is used for smoothing the play grounds etc.

(ii) Tanden Roller : A tanden roller is Light weight roller having only two wheels. It is used for initial rolling of roads and for dressing the surface only. This roller usually weights 4 to 8 tonnes and exerts an approximate pressure of 7.5 kgf/cm^2 to 16 kgf/cm^2. This type of rollers are generally driven by diesel oil.

(iii) Three Wheeled Roller : This roller has three wheels, one steering wheel and two rear wheels. The weight of such roller varies from 10 tonnes to 15 tonnes. These are driven by steam or diesel oil. These roller are quite suitable for hard surface. In order to increase the rolling pressure on the road, the wheels are filled with water or loaded with some weight.

Pneumatic Tyred Roller

A pneumatic tyred roller is a small size truck having one or two axles on which a number of smooth rubber tyres wheels are placed. The truck is provided with a platform on which the load may be put in the form of sand bags or in some other form in order to get the required intensity of pressure. 

These rollers are very efficient in consolidating earth sub grades. These are very useful for granular soils and in final operations, bituminous surface dressings etc. These rollers are also very useful for sandi-soil compaction.

Sheep Foot Roller

A sheep foot roller consists of heavy metallic cylinder having 1 to 1.5 meter diameter and 1.2 meter length. These cylinders have 19 to 23 projections extending out of the curved surfaces of the cylinders. These projections are arranged on the periphery of the cylindrical drums in rows and have the shapes of sheep feet.

This is the best machine for compacting soil because the feet of the roller penetrates in to the soil and presses it ensuring the proper compaction of soil from the bottom itself. The cylindrical drums are hollow from inside and can be filled with some material to increase their weights. 

The efficiency of a sheep foot roller is as high as that of a flat wheeled roller. As tractor is used for pulling the sheep foot roller. The speed at which the roller is pulled by the tractor is 3 to 5 km/hour.

Read More -

What is Tractor?

Read more ...

Tractor is a self propelled type of machine which is used for various types of jobs. It is used for pulling loads with the help of a tractive force. It works with a diesel engine and its horse power varies from 14 to 200 h.p.

Types of Tractor

These days the following two types of tractors are most commonly used:

(i) Wheel type tractor

(ii) Crawler type tractor

1. Wheel Type Tractor

The wheel type tractor has the pneumatic tyres. This is suitable for even and smooth type of ground. The wheel type tractors can be (a) Four Wheel Type (b) Two Wheel Type.

Advantages

These tractors have higher speed. These tractors can be moved on the pavements and roads without damaging the track. These are cheap and light.

Disadvantages

They are not suitable for uneven and rough grounds. They are not able to handle heavier jobs of digging and hauling. They have got the chances of slipping over the loose soil tracks.

2. Crawler Type Tractor

It is known as crawler type tractor because it crawls or moves on an endless chain. This type of tractor is most commonly used in slippery, loose and muddy grounds.

Advantages

These tractors are capable of handling heavier jobs of digging and hauling. These tractors have no chances of slipping over the loose soil tracks and the slippery tracks.

Disadvantages

The speed of crawler type tractor is less than that of the wheel type tractors. The crawler type tractors are costlier. When the crawler type tractors move, they are likely to damage the tarred roads and pavements etc.

How to make selection of a Tractor?

When we are making the selection of a tractor for a particular job, the following factors should be kept in view.

1. The type of the job for which it is to be employed.
2. The size of the tractor required.
3. The selection of a tractor also depends upon the smoothness of the haul road.
4. The selection of a tractor depends upon the slope of the hauling road.
5. The length of the haul etc., are also considered while making the selection of a tractor.

Read More -

What is Road Roller?

Read more ...

In a group discussion a group of participants are made to discuss their views on a topic or subject within a limited time. To put it simply, we can say that it is a interview process or a group activity.

In the present day Group Discussion is a new technique that has come up in order to evaluate student personality. It is used as one of the most effective method to select the best candidate in a group of eligible candidates. Group Discussion may be used by an interviewer of a company, colleges or even in different management examinations.

Aim of the Group Discussion

   A Group Discussion is a method used by a company or any organization to know whether the candidate has certain personality traits and skills that it is looking for in its candidates. 

These traits or skills include Communication skills, Interpersonal Skills, Leadership Skills, Motivational Skills, Team Building Skills, Analytical or Logical Skills, Reasoning ability, Initiative, Assertiveness, Decision Making, Flexibility and Creativity. 

Group Discussion evaluation is done by panel of subject experts who prepares a report after analysing the facts at the end of the discussion.

How to prepare for Group Discussion?

   The panel of experts in Group Discussion is trying to test whether the candidate knows the topic well, is able to present his/her point of view in a logical manner, is interested in understanding what others group members feels about the same subject and is able to adapt himself/herself a group situation.

Important Tips or Suggestions to Prepare Well for a Group Discussion

1. Be a good listener.
2. Do not behave in an aggressive way.
3. Taking the lead and staring the discussion.
4. Maintain a proper eye contact with other team members.
5. Don't interept other group members while they are speaking.
6. Try to be positive and do not be complacent (over confident).
7. Try solving problems arising out of the discussion.
8. Do not speak for longer periods.
9. Try to prearrange your thoughts and put them in a logical sequence.
10. Always carry a pen and a notepad. You can note down what other group members say so that you can build up your viewpoints clearly.

Read more ...

Introduction

In every field — education, business, engineering, management — clear and effective communication is key to success.

But what makes communication effective?

Communication experts explain it using the simple rule called The 7 Cs of Communication.

These 7 principles help anyone — whether a student, teacher, manager, or team leader — to communicate ideas, information, and instructions in a clear, concise, and professional manner.

This updated guide explains each C with practical examples, so you can apply them easily in your daily life, studies, or career.

📌What Are the 7 Cs of Communication?

The 7 Cs of Communication are seven simple principles that ensure your message is clear, understandable, and achieves its purpose.

The 7 Cs are: 

1️⃣ Clear

2️⃣ Concise

3️⃣ Concrete

4️⃣ Correct

5️⃣ Coherent

6️⃣ Complete

7️⃣ Courteous

Let’s understand each one step by step.

📌 1️⃣ Clarity

Definition:

Your message should be clear so the receiver understands it easily.

How to achieve:

Use simple, familiar words.

Avoid jargon or complicated phrases.

Focus on a single idea at a time.

Example:

❌ Unclear: “We might need to consider a possible revision if the project scope allows.”

✅ Clear: “Please revise the report by Friday if the manager approves.”

📌 2️⃣ Conciseness

Definition:

Keep your message brief and to the point. Do not use unnecessary words.

How to achieve:

Remove redundant words and filler phrases.

Use short sentences.

Stick to relevant information only.

Example:

❌ Wordy: “At this point in time, we are in need of your urgent assistance.”

✅ Concise: “We need your urgent help now.”

📌 3️⃣ Concreteness

Definition:

Use specific facts and figures. Your message should be definite, not vague.

How to achieve:

Use concrete words instead of general ones.

Give real examples, numbers, or data.

Example:

❌ Vague: “Sales improved a lot last month.”

✅ Concrete: “Sales increased by 25% in June compared to May.”

📌 4️⃣ Correctness

Definition:

Your message should be grammatically correct, factually accurate, and suitable for the audience.

How to achieve:

Check grammar, spelling, and punctuation.

Use correct facts and figures.

Use the right level of language for your audience.

Example:

❌ Incorrect: “Your all are invited to the seminar.”

✅ Correct: “You all are invited to the seminar.”

📌 5️⃣ Coherence

Definition:

The message should be logical, well-organized, and have a smooth flow.

How to achieve:

Arrange ideas in a logical sequence.

Use connecting words (like ‘first’, ‘next’, ‘finally’).

Make sure sentences connect to each other naturally.

Example:

❌ Uncoherent: “Submit the report. The meeting is on Monday. Prepare slides.”

✅ Coherent: “Please submit the report before Monday’s meeting and prepare the presentation slides too.”

📌 6️⃣ Completeness

Definition:

Give all the necessary information the receiver needs to understand and respond.

How to achieve:

Answer all the ‘wh-questions’: who, what, when, where, why, and how.

Include any required details like dates, times, or deadlines.

Add a clear call to action.

Example:

❌ Incomplete: “Submit the form soon.”

✅ Complete: “Please submit the admission form by Friday, 5 PM to the college office.”

📌 7️⃣ Courtesy

Definition:

Be respectful, polite, and positive. Courtesy builds goodwill and positive relationships.

How to achieve:

Use polite words and phrases.

Respect the feelings and viewpoints of others.

Avoid rude or harsh language.

Example:

❌ Discourteous: “You failed to complete the task on time.”

✅ Courteous: “I noticed the task wasn’t completed on time. Is there any way I can help you finish it?”

📌 Benefits of Applying the 7 Cs

✔️ Messages are clear and easy to understand.

✔️ Fewer misunderstandings and confusion.

✔️ Saves time and effort for both sender and receiver.

✔️ Builds trust and professionalism.

✔️ Creates better relationships in workplace and academics.

📌 How to Remember the 7 Cs

A quick trick: “Clear, Concise, Concrete, Correct — Coherent, Complete, Courteous.”

📌 Practical Example: Bad vs. Good

❌ Poor Communication:

"Hey, we need that thing done soon, make sure you check it and send it back ASAP."

✅ Effective with 7 Cs:

"Please check the project report for errors, complete the missing sections, and send it to me by Wednesday, 5 PM. Let me know if you have any questions. Thank you!"

📌 Conclusion

Mastering the 7 Cs of Communication helps students, teachers, professionals, and leaders communicate confidently and effectively.

Whenever you write an email, message, report, or speak to a group — apply these principles and see the difference!

Read more ...

The term essay has been derived from the Latin word ' exigre ' and the French word ' essai '. These terms mean an attempt, a trial or an experiment.

Essays are a sincere and committed attempt to describe a subject clearly and in an interesting way so that the reader enjoys it.

They may not be exhaustive in nature but they certainly put forward the personal point of view of the essayist from a particular angle. It would be worth be worth while to have knowledge about various definitions of an essay by famous essayists.

DEFINITIONS

Dr. Johnson defines essay as "a loose sally of mind, an irregular, indigested piece, not a regular and orderly performance".

George Saintsbury calls essay "a work of prose art, the after dinner monologue of an interesting and well-informed man".

Dr. Middleton Murry puts essay as "a composition of moderate length on any particular subject, originally implying want to finish, but now of a composition more or less elaborate in style, though a limited range".

J. B. Priestly defines it as "a genuine expression of an original personality, an artful and enduring kind of talk".

W. H. Hudson says that "the true essay is essentially personal. It belongs to the literature of self-expression".

According to William Hazlitt, "The essayist is committed to himself. He works not through narrative and character, but by observing and recording his emotions".

TYPES OF ESSAYS

Essays can broadly be categorised in five different types. They can be Descriptive, Narrative, Reflective or Expository, Imaginative and Argumentative.

Other than these types we can have historical, humorous, critical, literally, biographical and autobiographical essays also.

The essay has a simple structure. It starts with the Introduction or Beginning in which the topic is defined or stated. Then comes the Middle or the Main Body of the essay in which we describe or narrate the main topic of the essay in an ordered, logical and chronological way.

The body can be divided into separate paragraphs depending on the subject or thought content of the essay. The last part of the structure of an essay is the Conclusion or End in which the writer gives a solution to the problem stated in the introduction. He consolidates his view point already explained and discussed in the main body of the essay.

How to attempt an Essay?

1. Define the aim and scope of the essay.
2. Start thinking about the topic of the essay and note down the ideas as they come to your mind. If necessary create a space for rough work in your sheet.
3. Prepare the outlines by arranging the ideas point - wise.
4. Now start writing from the Introduction. You can simply state the topic along with a short explanation. You can begin with a relevant quotation or an eye catching phrase. You can also begin the essay with a personal touch.
5. Start developing your ideas clearly in the main body of your essay. You can take hint from the outlines which you have already prepared.
6. In the conclusion of the essay, you should state your ideas clearly, firmly and without any confusion. The conclusion should give an impression that you have ended the essay with an authentic note.
7. If time permits, revise your essay. This would enable you to weed out unwanted and careless mistakes.
8. It is advisable to use simple and familiar vocabulary. Avoid using high sounding and ambiguous words. Slangs should strictly be avoided as they spoil the beauty of an essay.

Read more ...

The process of communication consists of the sender, message, channel, receiver, and feedback. It also includes the essential elements of encoding and decoding.

In order to make communication effective or complete each of the components of the communication process has to perform the desired function satisfactorily.

1. Sender : The sender is a person who sends the message either in written or oral mode. The process of communication begins with the sender. He/She formulates the message and makes necessary arrangements to send it. The sender is the encoder as he/she gives meanings to each word.

2. Message : The message is the idea, facts, thoughts for the content matter in the written or oral form prepared by the sender.

3. Channel : The channel is the medium, agency or vehicle used to transfer or transmit the message from the sender to the receiver and vice-versa.

4. Receiver : The receiver is a person who receives the message. He is called decoder as he tries to find meanings from the message encoded and send by the sender.

5. Feedback : Feedback is the reply, response or reciprocation given by the receiver to the sender. It is an important part of the communication process as without it, communication remains incomplete.

6. Encoding : Encoding is the act of attaching or formulating meaning to the words, symbols or gestures in the message. This activity is performed by the sender while preparing the message to be sent to the receiver. Hence the sender is called the encoder.

7. Decoding : Decoding is the act of finding out the meaning of the words, symbols or gestures used in the message. This work or activity is carried out by the receiver. On receiving the message, the receiver tries to decode the message and prepares to give a response or reply to the sender. Hence the receiver is called the decoder.

To put it in a short and simple way, the sender forms (encodes) the message, and sends it through a suitable channel to the receiver who, in turn, decodes the message and sends a reply or a feedback to the sender.

For example in the process of posting an email, the sender is the composer / writer of the email, the message is the matter written in the composition sheet, the channel in this case is the internet / Computer and the person who receives the email and gives a reply or feedback is the receiver.

Read more ...

What is communication? What does communication means?

The success or failure of an individual depends on the ability to communicate effectively. In this rapid changing world, a perfectionist is always in demand. Apart from the technical expertise, good communication skills are always sought after. 

While in job we are entrusted with a lot of responsibilities like locating a problem, finding a solution, coordinating multiple events, developing concepts or proto types and developing healthy relationship with people both inside and outside the workplace. These responsibilities can be successfully carried out if one has efficiency in communication. 

Now before moving ahead on the topic that what is communication, let us try to understand the meaning of the term ' communication '. 

Meaning of the term 'Communication'

The English word communication has originated from the Latin word ' communicare ' which means to share, to impart, or to commune. Therefore communication literally means interaction, spreading, giving or sharing of information.

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

Communication is a process of meaningful and effective interaction or transmission of facts, ideas, thoughts, emotions, signals, and values from one person to another or from one point to another point.

Definitions of Communication

There are various definitions of communication. Let us look at a few of them. 

According to W. H. Norman and Summer, "Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, or emotions by two or more persons".

According to D. E. McFarland, "Communication may be broadly defined as the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. More specially it is the process by which meanings are perceived and understanding is reached among human beings".

According to Jr. E. John, "Communication is the process involving the transmission and reception of symbols eliciting meaning in the minds of the participants by making common their life experiences".

According to American Management Association, "Any behaviour that results in the exchange of meaning".

According to Brain Tracy, "Your ability to communicate effectively is closely tied to your ability to perform effectively, to get the results for which you were hired. The quality of your communication with other will determine the quality of your life as a manager".

These are some definitions which clears the above given statement of "What is communication?".

Also read -  

The Process of Communication

What is Written Communication

Read more ...

Words are divided into eight parts according to the purpose they are used for. The different sorts of words are called Parts of Speech.

There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The a part of speech indicates how the word functions in meaning also as grammatically within the sentence.

In traditional grammar, a neighborhood of speech may be a category of words (or, more generally, of lexical items) that have similar grammatical properties. Words that are assigned to an equivalent a part of speech generally display similar syntatic behavior—they play similar roles within the grammatical structure of sentences—and sometimes similar morphology therein they undergo inflection for similar properties.

Kinds of Words:-

Noun

Pronoun

Adjective

Verb

Adverb

Preposition

Conjunction

Interjection

1. Noun

The name of an individual , place, animal, or thing is named noun.

For example : Sheetal, Mumbai, Dog, Pen, etc.

2. Pronoun

The word which is used in the place of a noun is called pronoun.

For example : I, We, You, They, He, She, etc.

3. Adjective

The word which tells us something more about a noun or pronoun is called an adjective.

For example : Good, Cold, Fat, Brown, etc.

4. Verb

The word which shows an action or a state of being of a person or thing is called verb.

For example : Dance, Play, Laugh, Go, etc.

5. Adverb

The word which modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb is called an adverb.

For example : Slowly, Brightly, Well, Very, etc.

6. Preposition

The word which is placed before a noun or pronoun to show it’s relation with other words of the sentence is called preposition.

For example : At, Near, Under, On, Upon, etc.

7. Conjunction

The word that joins two words, two groups of words or two sentences together is called conjunction.

For example : And, But, Or, Because, etc.

8. Interjection

The word which expresses some sudden feeling in the heart is called interjection.

For example : Alas, Bravo, Oh, Hurrah, etc.

Read more ...

In this blog you'll learn that how you'll meet with someone in English, how you'll greet in English once you meet someone.

Now-a-days English is getting more priority than Hindi or the other languages. Whenever people visit any formal or official places they find talking others in English. So listening that, people also attempt to speak in English.

Learning English is straightforward except for speaking better it takes while. Learning English is simply not only learning it, but also to talk in English, to write in English, and lots of more.

Always when meeting with someone you've got to introduce yourself then there's far more to talk and starting is with the greetings, so I'm getting to tell you ways you'll greet in English once you meet with someone who speaks English or maybe with others. 

Spoken English are often divided into two parts :-

• Formal
• Informal

Formal

When you meet with someone you ought to start with greetings nearly as good morning, afternoon , Good evening.

Here I would like to inform you are doing not say someone farewell once you meet with someone whether it's night or not. you'll say farewell once you are leaving that person otherwise you are getting to sleep.

I am saying this because, to mention farewell means you're getting to sleep so you can't say farewell once you meet with someone.

After that you ought to tell your name e.g. “I am Vishal Kumar”. Then you ought to tell your post or your qualifications. e.g. I'm a doctor. Or I'm persuing 12th.

Actually introduction is bit different from this. Introduction are often short and also as long, it depends upon situation and condition. The thing which I'm telling is normal and short thing. This is often beginning. You're just starting a conversation. So this is often short.

You should also give chance to the opposite person to talk. You can't just speak. When you give the opposite person chance to talk that shows that you simply also are taking note of him and giving him respect. If he doesn't speak then you should ask him his/her name.

e.g. What's your name?

or May I do know about you?

or May I do know your name?

Informal

When you meet together with your friends or your relatives, relations then you're getting to talk informally. There you begin with Hello or Hi.

Use of Hello :- “Hello” is employed once you meet with someone who is older than you or elder than you.

e.g. Your father, mother, etc.

Use of Hi :- “Hi” is employed once you meet with someone who is younger than you or is of same age.

e.g. Your younger brother, your friends, etc.

Then you'll ask that how he's , e.g. How are you? Or How is it going?

Here you're meeting with someone to whom you're conversant in . So then you'll ask your questions which may not be common.

These are some points of starting of a conversation in English formally or informally but this is often all about greetings.

Read more ...

Salient or Most Important Features of Letter Writing

✉️ What is Letter Writing?

Letter writing is an important skill for students, professionals, and everyone who wants to communicate formally or informally through written words.

A letter is a written message sent from one person to another to convey information, feelings, requests, or instructions.

Simple guide to the most important features of writing a perfect letter.

✅ Why is Letter Writing Still Important?

Even today, when emails and messages are common, formal letters are still used for:

Official applications
Business communication
Complaints and requests
Invitations
Cover letters and job applications

Learning to write a clear, proper letter shows good communication skills.

📌 Salient or Most Important Features of a Good Letter

A well-written letter should have these key features:

1️⃣ Clear Purpose

A letter should have a clear purpose — the reader should know why you are writing within the first few lines.

Example:

✔️ “I am writing to request a copy of my marksheet.”

✔️ “I am applying for the position of Junior Engineer.”

2️⃣ Proper Format

A good letter follows a standard format:

Sender’s Address (top left)

Date

Receiver’s Address

Salutation/Greeting (Dear Sir/Madam, Dear Friend)

Body of the Letter (Introduction, Main Content, Conclusion)

Closing/Subscription (Yours sincerely, Yours faithfully)

Signature & Name

3️⃣ Polite and Formal Language (if needed)

Formal letters should use polite and respectful language.

Avoid slang, rude words, or unnecessary jokes.

✔️ Use phrases like:

I request you to…

Kindly grant me…

I shall be grateful if…

4️⃣ Concise and Relevant Content

Write only what is necessary.

Avoid long, unnecessary details.

Stick to the point — your message should be easy to read and understand.

5️⃣ Correct Grammar and Spelling

Good grammar, punctuation, and spelling are very important.

Mistakes make the letter look unprofessional or careless.

✅ Always proofread before sending.

6️⃣ Proper Tone

Formal letters: Respectful, direct, and clear.

Informal letters: Friendly, warm, personal.

Use the tone that matches the purpose and the person you are writing to.

7️⃣ Neat Presentation

Write neatly if handwritten, or format properly if typed.

Keep proper margins, paragraphs, and spacing.

A neat letter creates a good impression.

8️⃣ Closing Courteously

End your letter with a polite closing line, like:

I look forward to your reply.

Thank you for your time and consideration.

✅ Types of Letters

There are two main types of letters: 

1️⃣ Formal Letters — official, business, complaint, application.

2️⃣ Informal Letters — to friends, family, or relatives.

📌 Quick Tips for Students

✔️ Practice letter formats regularly.

✔️ Learn some common opening & closing lines.

✔️ Use real-life situations to practice (e.g., leave application, complaint to principal).

✔️ Keep a sample letter book or template notebook.

🔑 Conclusion

Letter writing is a basic but powerful skill that helps you communicate your message clearly and respectfully.

Knowing the salient features helps you write effective letters for exams, jobs, and daily life.

💡 Did this help you?

👉 Share this with your friends who want to improve their letter writing!

👉 Follow our Facebook page for more study guides and practical tips!

Read more ...